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updated battery numbers, added sustainability and LCA work

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aj 2020-12-22 16:59:03 +00:00
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68
final report/references.bib
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@ -387,6 +387,74 @@
urldate = {2020-12-21},
}
@Article{argonne-li-ion-lca,
author = {Dai, Qiang and Kelly, Jarod C. and Gaines, Linda and Wang, Michael},
journal = {Batteries},
title = {Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Automotive Applications},
year = {2019},
issn = {2313-0105},
month = jun,
number = {2},
volume = {5},
abstract = {In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.},
article-number = {48},
doi = {10.3390/batteries5020048},
groups = {Battery},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2313-0105/5/2/48},
urldate = {2020-12-22},
}
@Article{lithium-lca,
author = {Matthias Thomitzek and Felipe Cerdas and Sebastian Thiede and Christoph Herrmann},
journal = {Procedia CIRP},
title = {Cradle-to-Gate Analysis of the Embodied Energy in Lithium Ion Batteries},
year = {2019},
issn = {2212-8271},
note = {26th CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering (LCE) Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA May 7-9, 2019},
pages = {304 - 309},
volume = {80},
abstract = {Battery technology is increasingly seen as an integral element for future energy and transportation systems. Current developments in industry show an increasing number and size of battery producing factories, thus leading to an immense energy demand not only during the production of battery cells but also raw material extraction. Determining the embodied energy of battery cells allows a comparison with alternative energy systems and assessing the overall energy demand that can contribute to define measures for the improvement of its environmental footprint. The present work provides an analysis of the production of battery cells regarding their embodied energy. In order to quantify the embodied energy, a material and energy flow analysis (MEFA) was adapted towards battery production. The methodology focuses on the manufacturing processes and considers indirect and direct energy consumers, different machine states and existing yield losses along the value chain. The approach was applied to the battery manufacturing in the Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB).},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2019.01.099},
groups = {Battery},
keywords = {Modelling, Energy, Sustainable development},
url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212827119301015},
urldate = {2020-12-22},
}
@Misc{wired-lithium,
author = {Amit Katwala},
howpublished = {Online},
month = aug,
title = {The spiralling environmental cost of our lithium battery addiction},
year = {2018},
groups = {Battery},
organization = {Wired},
url = {https://www.wired.co.uk/article/lithium-batteries-environment-impact},
urldate = {2020-12-22},
}
@Misc{resourceworld-54-lithium,
author = {Ellsworth Dickson},
howpublished = {Online},
title = {Lithium Triangle},
year = {2017},
groups = {Battery},
organization = {Resource World},
url = {https://resourceworld.com/lithium-triangle/},
urldate = {2020-12-22},
}
@Misc{ethical-consumer-conflict-materials,
author = {Heather Webb},
howpublished = {Online},
month = apr,
title = {Conflict Minerals},
year = {2018},
groups = {Battery},
url = {https://www.ethicalconsumer.org/technology/conflict-minerals},
urldate = {2020-12-22},
}
@Comment{jabref-meta: databaseType:bibtex;}
@Comment{jabref-meta: grouping:

568
final report/report.lyx
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@ -1132,6 +1132,13 @@ Flow battery, solid state
\begin_layout Subsection
Proposed Solution
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "subsec:Proposed-UUV-Battery-Solution"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
@ -1154,6 +1161,235 @@ For this project, Lithium was proposed as the solution for a vessel energy
result of it's critical importance to consumer electronics and electric
vehicles.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
There are many standard Lithium-ion standard cell formats from flat pouches
and prismatic cells designed for mobile phones to the more standard cylindrical
cells.
For these applications, cylindrical cells are a suitable choice where compactne
ss and thinness are not critical design parameters.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The 18650 cell is a mature cylindrical cell with good reliability records
and high rates of use among medical equipment, drones and electric vehicles;
Tesla uses battery packs composed of 18650 cells.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
As with other battery cells, the voltage is a characteristic of the chemistry,
for Lithium this is around 3.6 V.
The key parameters that vary amongst producers are the capacity and charge/disc
harge C-rates.
In order to estimate the cell specification for use in this project, the
existing range of available cells was taken into account.
Typical, mid-range 18650 cells can range between 2500 - 3000 mAh capacity;
the highest energy density can currently extend this to 3500 - 3600 mAh.
As technology improves, it is expected that by the point of construction
this higher range will be more accessible and reliable, as such 3500 mAh
is used as the cell capacity for further calculations.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The 18650 cell specifications being used herein are described in table
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "tab:18650-specs"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float table
wide false
sideways false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\noindent
\align center
\begin_inset Tabular
<lyxtabular version="3" rows="6" columns="2">
<features tabularvalignment="middle">
<column alignment="center" valignment="top">
<column alignment="center" valignment="top">
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" bottomline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\series bold
18650 Cell
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Voltage, (
\begin_inset Formula $V$
\end_inset
)
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
3.6
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Capacity, (
\begin_inset Formula $mAh$
\end_inset
)
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
3500
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Ideal Discharge C-Rate, (
\begin_inset Formula $h^{-1}$
\end_inset
)
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
1
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Ideal Charge C-Rate, (
\begin_inset Formula $h^{-1}$
\end_inset
)
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
0.5
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Weight, (
\begin_inset Formula $g$
\end_inset
)
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
\begin_layout Plain Layout
48
\end_layout
\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
</lyxtabular>
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\begin_inset Caption Standard
\begin_layout Plain Layout
General specifications for 18650 Lithium-ion cells
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "tab:18650-specs"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
@ -1190,7 +1426,7 @@ noprefix "false"
; to summarise, the amount of required cells was calculated from the required
power draw of the battery and the characteristics of the 18650 Lithium
cell being used.
The result was 237,169 cells.
The result was 193,600 cells.
These cells are arranged into a matrix of parallel and series blocks, all
the series blocks connected in parallel must be of the same length
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (Margin)
@ -1292,14 +1528,141 @@ Meta analysis
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The life-cycle analysis of Lithium-ion batteries is a complicated process
for a couple of reasons.
As repeatedly stated, Li-ion batteries have been critical to the explosion
of mobile consumer electronics; the development of the fabrication process
and the associated environmental effects has changed dramatically.
Additionally, as a global product the values for various greenhouse gas
(GHG) and other emissions is contingent on the country within which the
cells are made.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
Both the cumulative energy demand (CED) and the GHG emissions are considered.
Cumulative energy demand allows
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
Cradle-to-Gate
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float figure
wide false
sideways false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\noindent
\align center
\begin_inset Graphics
filename battery-breakdown-mj-kwh.png
lyxscale 50
width 75col%
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\begin_inset Caption Standard
\begin_layout Plain Layout
CED breakdown for a NCM11 battery pack (MJ/kWh),
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "circular-energy-li-lca,argonne-li-ion-lca"
literal "false"
\end_inset
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "fig:battery-ced-breakdown"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float figure
wide false
sideways false
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\noindent
\align center
\begin_inset Graphics
filename cell-breakdown-mj-kwh.png
lyxscale 50
width 75col%
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Plain Layout
\begin_inset Caption Standard
\begin_layout Plain Layout
CED breakdown for a NCM11 cell without BMS or pack (MJ/kWh),
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "circular-energy-li-lca,argonne-li-ion-lca"
literal "false"
\end_inset
\begin_inset CommandInset label
LatexCommand label
name "fig:cell-ced-breakdown"
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
End-of-Life
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
There are two main approaches to sustainable end-of-life processing for
Lithium-ion processing, second-use and recycling.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
Summary
\end_layout
@ -1310,8 +1673,110 @@ Sustainability
\begin_layout Standard
Although many of the important environmental aspects of sustainability are
covered by a life-cycle analysis, there are other elements to sustainability
as previously described.
covered by a life-cycle analysis, there are other elements to consider
regarding sustainability.
One of the most important aspects is a social one, that of the mining of
Lithium and Cobalt.
The majority of both minerals are located in two areas of the global south
where resource shortages and unethical mining practices lead to dangerous
and damaging results both socially and environmentally.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
Lithium
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The majority of global Lithium deposits can be found in an area of South
America referred to as the
\emph on
Lithium Triangle
\emph default
covering areas of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia.
The area has been estimated to constitute between 54 and 70% of the world's
deposits,
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "wired-lithium,resourceworld-54-lithium"
literal "false"
\end_inset
.
The extraction process is a water-intensive process in an area already
without an adequate supply; in Chile this is as much as 65% of the area's
water or 500,000 gallons per tonne of Lithium,
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "wired-lithium"
literal "false"
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The processing can also include dangerous chemicals including various acids
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (Margin)
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Leaking into water supply Tibet
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
Cobalt
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
Over half of the world's Cobalt deposits are found in the Democratic Republic
of Congo,
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "wired-lithium,ethical-consumer-conflict-materials"
literal "false"
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
Although not widely officially designated as such, there are efforts to
class Cobalt as a conflict mineral as it's importance grows to one of the
most notorious countries for other such minerals including Gold and Tungsten.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
20% of the exported cobalt has been estimated to come from artisanal mines,
\begin_inset CommandInset citation
LatexCommand citep
key "ethical-consumer-conflict-materials"
literal "false"
\end_inset
.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (inline)
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Child workers
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
@ -1320,7 +1785,20 @@ Although many of the important environmental aspects of sustainability are
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
Lithium and cobalt mining
Overworked, bad conditions, no PPE, lung disease
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (inline)
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
DRC political implications
\end_layout
\end_inset
@ -2506,7 +2984,9 @@ smart buoys
\emph default
around the expected working area of the UUV.
The use of buoys as opposed to beacons on the sea-floor significantly decreases
the preparation and clean-up mission phases.
the preparation and clean-up mission phases.75% would likely be an overestimatio
n for an overall average usage, 10 hours would be a minimum range for the
vehicle
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
@ -2602,6 +3082,84 @@ Control
Power
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The ability to operate autonomously without an umbilical cord implies that
the UUV must have an onboard power supply.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
As mentioned, much of the vehicle specification is being inherited from
existing ROV technology and this would include expected operating power.
The expansion of the UUV's capabilities to include autonomous operation
would primarily be completed through software and not significantly alter
the required power.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
300 kW was used as the required max power to calculate the energy storage
capabilities, an operating time of 10 hours was also defined.
An average draw of 50% max power was used to calculate 1.5 MWh of required
storage.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (Margin)
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
It is proposed that the UUV battery be removable and that two are available.
This will provide redundancy as well as providing flexibility during missions.
\end_layout
\end_inset
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The previously described 18650 cells (section
\begin_inset CommandInset ref
LatexCommand ref
reference "subsec:Proposed-UUV-Battery-Solution"
plural "false"
caps "false"
noprefix "false"
\end_inset
) will be used for the UUV's battery pack, this will allow a single process
for sourcing and end-of-life processing and increase efficiency by utilising
the economy of scale.
As such, the previously mentioned notes on sustainability including processes
for second-use and recycling would apply to the UUVs battery pack.
\begin_inset Flex TODO Note (Margin)
status open
\begin_layout Plain Layout
As described in the sustainability, operating at scale has allowed the carbon
cost of cells to go down, this is the same thing
\end_layout
\end_inset
Lithium-polymer batteries have found usage in AUVs as a result of their
lighter weight than Lithium-ion batteries.
While this will increase efficiency, it is proposed that the use of a single
supply chain will improve sustainability, a key parameter for this project.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The cell voltage (3.6 V) and capacity (3.5 Ah) were multiplied for 12.6 Wh
of power capacity per cell.
This would require 119,048 cells to meet the capacity requirements.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Standard
The battery system constitutes an extra 5,700 kg of extra weight for the
UUV, it is important that the battery be removable for tethered operation
in order to increase efficiency when independent operation is not required.
\end_layout
\begin_layout Subsubsection
Financials
\end_layout

8
maths/battery.m
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@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ close all;clear all;clc;
INTEGER_CELLS = true;
P_OUT_INCLUDES_P_IN = true; % subtract power in from power out
% assumes that battery and generation coupled for connection to P out
% assumes that batter17y and generation coupled for connection to P out
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
%% Parameters
@ -18,7 +18,8 @@ P_OUT_INCLUDES_P_IN = true; % subtract power in from power out
%%%%%%% 18650 Cell
cell_voltage = 3.6; % V
cell_capacity = 2850; % mAh
% cell_capacity = 2850; % mAh
cell_capacity = 3500; % mAh
cell_dis_c = 1; % 1/h
cell_charge_c = 0.5; % 1/h
@ -26,7 +27,8 @@ cell_weight = 48; % g
cell_dia = 18.4; % mm
cell_height = 65; % mm
cell_price = 6; % £
%cell_price = 6; % £
cell_price = 5; % £
cell_emb_c = 117.5; % kgCO2eq/kWh
cell_rec_emb_c = 15; % kgCO2eq/kWh

0
maths/func/get_extra_p.m → maths/get_extra_p.m
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2
maths/mission_power_model.m
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@ -109,7 +109,7 @@ figure('Renderer', 'painters', 'Position', [10 10 1000 800])
line_width = 1;
subplot(3, 1, 1);
sgtitle('Mission Power Usage');
%sgtitle('Mission Power Usage');
% sgtitle(TITLE);
hold on;
grid on;

12
maths/power_model.m
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@ -84,19 +84,19 @@ figure('Renderer', 'painters', 'Position', [10 10 1000 800])
line_width = 1;
subplot(3, 1, 1);
sgtitle(TITLE);
%sgtitle(TITLE);
hold on;
grid on;
plot(x, power_in / 1e6, 'g', 'LineWidth', 2);
plot(x, power_out / 1e6, 'r', 'LineWidth', 1);
max_line = yline(MAX_P_OUT / 1e6, '-c', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.75);
min_line = yline(MIN_P_OUT / 1e6, '-c', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.75);
max_line.Alpha = 0.5;
min_line.Alpha = 0.5;
%max_line = yline(MAX_P_OUT / 1e6, '-c', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.75);
%min_line = yline(MIN_P_OUT / 1e6, '-c', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.75);
%max_line.Alpha = 0.5;
%min_line.Alpha = 0.5;
yline(p_av / 1e6, '--m', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.5);
%yline(p_av / 1e6, '--m', 'LineWidth', line_width * 0.5);
legend('P In', 'P Out', 'Max P Out', 'Min P Out', 'Average P In');
ylabel('Power (MW)')

5
maths/power_sim.m
View File

@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ function [power_in,battery_level,power_out,unused_energy,unavailable_energy, bat
%% Specs
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
CELL_TOTAL = 159201; % from battery script
CELL_TOTAL = 193600; % from battery script
CHARGE_EFF = 0.8;
DISCHARGE_EFF = 0.8;
@ -15,7 +15,8 @@ P_IN_INTERVAL = ( 200e3/(5*60) ) * 0.75; % W amount that gen power increases
P_OUT_INTERVAL = 1e4; % W amount that load can varies by randomly
cell_voltage = 3.6; % V
cell_capacity = 2850; % mAh
% cell_capacity = 2850; % mAh
cell_capacity = 3500; % mAh
cell_dis_c = 1; % 1/h
cell_charge_c = 0.5; % 1/h